Respiratory System

The Pathway

* Air enters the nostrils
* passes through the nasopharynx,
* the oral pharynx
* through the glottis
* into the trachea
* into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into
* bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of
* alveoli

Only in the alveoli does actual gas exchange takes place. There are some 300 million alveoli in two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160 m2 (almost equal to the singles area of a tennis court and 80 times the area of our skin!).


Breathing
In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the

* abdominal cavity, which contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and intestines) and the
* thoracic cavity, which contains the heart and lungs.

The inner surface of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs are lined with pleural membranes which adhere to each other. If air is introduced between them, the adhesion is broken and the natural elasticity of the lung causes it to collapse. This can occur from trauma. And it is sometimes induced deliberately to allow the lung to rest. In either case, reinflation occurs as the air is gradually absorbed by the tissues.
Because of this adhesion, any action that increases the volume of the thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand, drawing air into them.

* During inspiration (inhaling),
o The external intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribs up and out.
o The diaphragm contracts, drawing it down .
* During expiration (exhaling), these processes are reversed and the natural elasticity of the lungs returns them to their normal volume. At rest, we breath 15-18 times a minute exchanging about 500 ml of air.
* In more vigorous expiration,
o The internal intercostal muscles draw the ribs down and inward
o The wall of the abdomen contracts pushing the stomach and liver upward.
Under these conditions, an average adult male can flush his lungs with about 4 liters of air at each breath. This is called the vital capacity. Even with maximum expiration, about 1200 ml of residual air remain.

Digestive System

The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract—a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus—and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food (see figure).

Organs that make up the digestive tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine—also called the colon—rectum, and anus. Inside these hollow organs is a lining called the mucosa. In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that produce juices to help digest food. The digestive tract also contains a layer of smooth muscle that helps break down food and move it along the tract.

Two “solid” digestive organs, the liver and the pancreas, produce digestive juices that reach the intestine through small tubes called ducts. The gallbladder stores the liver’s digestive juices until they are needed in the intestine. Parts of the nervous and circulatory systems also play major roles in the digestive system.


Why is digestion important?

When you eat foods—such as bread, meat, and vegetables—they are not in a form that the body can use as nourishment. Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy.


How is food digested?

Digestion involves mixing food with digestive juices, moving it through the digestive tract, and breaking down large molecules of food into smaller molecules. Digestion begins in the mouth, when you chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine.

Photosynthesis Song

Plant and Animal Cell

Plant Cells Compared with Animal Cells

Animal cells do not have a cell wall. Instead of a cell wall, the plasma membrane (usually called cell membrane when discussing animal cells) is the outer boundary of animal cells. Animal tissues therefore require either external or internal support from some kind of skeleton. Frameworks of rigid cellulose fibrils thicken and strengthen the cell walls of higher plants. Plasmodesmata that connect the protoplasts of higher plant cells do not have a counterpart in the animal cell model. During telophase of mitosis, a cell plate is formed as the plant cell begins its division. In animal cells, the cell pinches in the center to form two cells; no cell plate is laid down. Centrioles are generally not found in higher plant cells, while they are found in animal cells. Animal cells do not have plastids, which are common in plant cells (chloroplasts). Both cell types have vacuoles, however, in animal cells vacuoles are very tiny or absent, while in plant cells vacuoles are generally quite large.

Active and Passive Transport

Passive Transport Versus Active Transport

Passive transport involves carriers, channels, or direct diffusion through a membrane.
This type of transport always operates from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration.
No external source of energy is required.

Examples of passive transport include
·Simple diffusion
·Channel diffusion
·Facilitated diffusion


In active transport it is possible to go against the concentration gradient.
In active transport, a source of energy is required to move the carrier and its materials.










Endocytosis is a general term for a group of processes that bring macromolecules, large particles, small molecules, and even small cells into the eukaryotic cell. There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. In all three, the plasma membrane invaginates (folds inward) around materials from the environment, forming a small pocket. The pocket deepens, forming a vesicle. This vesicle separates from the plasma membrane and migrates with its contents to the cell’s interior.


Exocytosis is the process by which materials packaged in vesicles are secreted from a cell when the vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane. The initial event in this process is the binding of a membrane protein protruding from the cytoplasmic side of the vesicle with a membrane protein on the cytoplasmic side of the target site on the plasma membrane. The phospholipid regions of the two membranes merge, and an opening to the outside of the cell develops. The contents of the vesicle are released to the environment, and the vesicle membrane is smoothly incorporated into the plasma membrane.

Diffision and Osmosis

Diffusion - the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentratiion, to areas of low concentration. When the molecules are even throughout a space - it is called EQUILIBRIUM

Concentration gradient - a difference between concentrations in a space.

Selectively Permeable - membranes that allow some things through, the cell membrane is selectively permeable, water and oxygen move freely across the cell's membrane, by diffusion

Osmosis - the diffusion of water (across a membrane)

Water will move in the direction where there is a high concentration of solute (and hence a lower concentration of water.

Type of Solutions


If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water will move back in forth but it won't have any result on the overall amount of water on either side.

"ISO" means the same


The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there are less solute (salt) molecules outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.

The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant cells, the central vacuoles will fill and the plant becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant from bursting

In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of bursting, organelles called CONTRACTILE VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to prevent this.


The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there are more solute (salt) molecules outside the cell, which causes the water to be sucked in that direction.

In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and the cells shrink, causing wilting.

In animal cells, the cells also shrink.

In both cases, the cell may die.

This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a myth that drinking sea water will cause you to go insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water.

This is also why "salting fields" was a common tactic during war, it would kill the crops in the field, thus causing food shortages.

Diffusion and Osmosis are both types of PASSIVE TRANSPORT - that is, no energy is required for the molecules to move into or out of the cell.

Sometimes, large molecules cannot cross the plasma membrane, and are "helped" across by carrier proteins - this process is called facilitated diffusion.

Course Outline in Earth and Envi. Sci.

Regional Science High School
Malasiga, San Roque, Zamboanga City

COURSE OUTLINE IN EARTH & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
S.Y. 2008 – 2009

First Grading Period
I. Introduction to Earth and Environmental Science
o Scope and Benefits of Earth & Environmental Science
o Composition of Environment
o Environment Sustains Life
o Role of Humans in Maintaining the Quality of Life
o Origin of the Earth
o Effects of the Motion of the Earth
o Locate Directions & Predict Approximate Time in Designated Places
II. The Earth’s Past
o Unique Features of the Earth’s Geologic Time
o Evidence of Geologic Events in Rocks
o Records of Living Things in Rocks
o Methods Used in Determining the Age of Fossils on Rocks
o Changes Undergone by the Continents
o Human Activities Contributed to the Changes by the Earth

Second Grading Period
III. Structure of the Earth
o Layers of the Earth
o Studying the Earth’s Interior
IV. Plate Tectonics
o Drifting Continents
o Theory of Plate Tectonic
o Physics of Plate Movement
V. Movement of the Crust
o Folding and Faulting
o Mountains and Plateaus
VI. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
o Earthquakes
o Earthquake Evidence
o Volcanoes

Third Grading Period
VII. Minerals
o Mineral Formation & Structure
o Mineral Identification & Uses
VIII. Rocks & Rock Cycle
o Rocks
o Igneous Rocks
o Sedimentary Rocks
o Metamorphic Rocks
IX. Weathering, Soil, Erosion
o Weathering
o Soil
o World Soil Type
o Force of Erosion


X. Waters of the Earth
o Distribution of the Waters of the Earth
o Philippines Territorial Waters
o Origin of the Earth’s Waters
o Properties of the Waters
o Ocean Bottom
o Inland Waters

Fourth Grading Period
XI. The Air Around Us
o The Composition of Air
o The Pressure of Air
o Sunlight Affects the Atmosphere
o Air Movements
o The Wind Systems in the Philippines
XII. Climate
o Causes of Climate
o Climate Classification
o Climate Change
XIII. Earth and the Moon
o Earth in Space
o Earth’s Moon
o Earth-Moon System
XIV. The Solar System
o The Sun
o Planets in the Solar System
o Asteroids, Meteoroids, Comets
XV. Stars and Galaxies
o The Study of Stars
o Characteristics of Stars
o Life Cycles of Stars
o Galaxies and Star Groups

References:

Our Changing Environment
By: Mercelita C. Magno


Science Insights
By: Marylyn Lisowski, Ph.D.


Earth Science – The Philippines in Focus
By: Leticia P. Cortes

Prepared

LYLWYNN B. LOZANO

Cell Song

So why do cells build us up
Nucleus, cell membrane, and cytoplasm
Mitochondria, vacuoles, and golgi bodies
Lysosomes, ribosomes, and centrioles
ER, chloroplast
We need you (2x)
More than anything darling
You’re all that we have from the start
So build us up
Cell organelles with your functions

Our body is made of microscopic cells
We’re unique, oh yes that’s true
The plant cells are diff’rent from animal cell
With its structures and components, hey, hey, hey
Nucleus is the brain, hey, hey, hey
Cell membrane, regulates the entry and exit of
materials in and out of the cell. ..oooohhh…oooohhh…..

So why don’t you build us up
Mitochondria baby, you give energy through ATP
And the lysosomes, the scavengers baby
Cleaning up our cells
And digest the food
We need you (2x)
More than anything darling
Endoplasmic re-ti-cu-lum,
It's the transport channel
And the ribosomes they make proteins

Chloroplasts are the plastids inside the plant cells,
The makers of glucose
They are together with numerous tiny vacuoles,
Containing cell sap, hey, hey, hey
Cell wall, a rigid wall, hey, hey, hey
Maintaining the shape of the cell because of
the water causing turgor pressure…inside…ooohhh….

So why don’t you build us up
Golgi bodies, baby shippers of the cell
By packing products
And the centrioles, aid in division of the nucleus
To form daughter cells
We need you (2x)
More than anything darling
You have to be part of our lives
So build us up
Cell organelles don’t break our hearts

We, we, we, we need you
More than anything darling
You have to be part of our lives
So build us up
Cell organelles don't break our hearts

So build us up
Cell organelles don't break our hearts

So build us up
Cell organelles don't break our hearts

NOTE: Listen to the Instrumental Version. Just don't mind the picture in the video.

Mitosis

Prophase
• chromatin begins to coil and condense to form chromosomes each chromosome appears to have two strands (each containing a single molecule of DNA)
• each strand is called a chromatid
• each chromatid is attached to its sister chromatid at the centromeres
• at this stage, the number of chromosomes (containing a pair of chromatids) is considered to be equal to the number of centromeres
• the two chromatids are the result of DNA replication that takes place just before mitosis starts.
• the nuclear envelope disappears
• the nucleolus disappears
• in cytoplasm, the spindle apparatus forms
• eventually the spindle guides the separation of sister chromatids into the two daughter cells

Metaphase
• spindle grows and forms attachments to the chromosomes at the centromeres
• chromosomes move to an equatorial plate (metaphase plate) which is formed along the midline of the cell between the poles
• chromosomes are at their most condensed state now
• metaphase chromosomes can be stained and will show distinctive banding patterns
Anaphase
• centromeres divide to create two chromosomes instead of a pair of attached chromatids
• spindle fibers shorten and the sister chromosomes are drawn to the opposite poles of the cell
• poles of the spindle apparatus are pushed apart as the cell elongates
• anaphase results in the exact division of chromosome, distributing one complete diploid complement of genetic information to each daughter cell
Telophase
• nuclear envelopes reassemble and surround each set of daughter chromosomes
• nucleoli reappear inside the newly formed nuclei
• in animal cell, a furrow appears around the cell that eventually pinches the cell into two new cells
• in plants, a cell plate forms between the two daughter nuclei as the cell wall divides the cell
• chromosomes decondense in the daughter cells to become chromatin and the cells are once again in Interphase.